About Book

Amphibians are more diverse than mammals and are found on almost every continent. They play a vigorous role in ecosystem as secondary consumers in many food chains. Amphibians are member of the group of vertebrate animals characterized by their ability to exploit both aquatic and terrestrial habitats. They are represented by frogs and toads (order Anura), newts and salamanders (order Caudata) and caecilians (order Gymnophiona). With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often considered to be ecological indicators. In many terrestrial ecosystems, they constitute one of the largest parts of the vertebrate biomass. However, their numbers are being rapidly decimated around the globe, largely due to the encroachment of humans on amphibian habitats and from growing human-caused environmental pollution. This book addresses all major areas of inquiry, including anuran amphibians, effects of climate change, helminth parasites, phenological patterns, effects of endocrine disruption and morphometric growth characteristics. It also focuses on mediterranean basin, mitigation measures and amphibian decline. The treatment of the book emphasizes patterns of distribution and their interpretation with respect to geography, climate, vegetation and evolutionary history, providing unique syntheses of these patterns. Different approaches, evaluations, methodologies and advancements in this field have also been included. Its broad scope makes it of relevance to students of general biology, ecology and conservation, but also to professionals in industries and agencies involved with environmental issues and nature conservation.

Preface............................................................................................................v

Chapter 1 Introductory Chapter: General Features of Reptiles and Amphibians..................................................................................................1

1. Introduction............................................................................................1

Chapter 2 From Effects of Linear Transport Infrastructures on Amphibians to Mitigation Measures.............................................................................5

Abstract...................................................................................................5

1. Introduction............................................................................................5

2. Habitat loss and fragmentation..........................................................7

3. Direct mortality.....................................................................................7

4. Mitigation measures.............................................................................8

5. Factors influencing the use of wildlife passage by

amphibians...........................................................................................10

6. Evaluating mitigation measures.......................................................12

7. Conclusion............................................................................................15

Chapter 3 Amphibians and Reptiles of the Mediterranean Basin..................21

Abstract.................................................................................................21

1. Introduction..........................................................................................21

2. Amphibian and reptiles diversity....................................................23

3. Conservation status.............................................................................30

4. Major threats........................................................................................33

5. Conservation........................................................................................37

6. Conclusion............................................................................................38

Acknowledgements.............................................................................39

Appendix 1...........................................................................................40

Chapter 4 Morphometric Growth Characteristics and Body Composition of

Fish and Amphibians...............................................................................56

Abstract.................................................................................................56

1. Introduction..........................................................................................56

2. Animal growth characteristics..........................................................57

3. Relative growth and allometric coefficients of body components

of fish and amphibian........................................................................68

4. Final considerations............................................................................74

Acknowledgements.............................................................................75

Chapter 5 Crossregulation of the Thyroid Hormone and Corticosteroids in

Amphibians and Fish: The Effects of Endocrine Disruption........83

1. Introduction..........................................................................................83

2. Thyroid hormone and corticosteroid endocrine systems:

current knowledge..............................................................................85

3. Use of aquatic organisms to investigate endocrine disruption.89

4. Impact of endocrine disruptors on thyroid hormone and

corticosteroids systems in fish..........................................................91

5. Conclusion............................................................................................93

Chapter 6 A Review of Phenological Patterns of Amphibians and Reptiles in

Central Mediterranean Ecoregion.......................................................100

1. Introduction........................................................................................100

2. Amphibians and reptiles in the central mediterranean

ecoregion ...........................................................................................101

3. Current methodological problems ...............................................103

4. Some remarkable case studies in amphibia ...............................109

5. Some remarkable case studies in reptilia ...................................112

6. Conclusion .........................................................................................115

7. Acknowledgments ...........................................................................116

Chapter 7 Study of Helminth Parasites of Amphibians by Scanning

Electron Microscopy...............................................................................124

1. Introduction........................................................................................124

2. Preparation of helminth parasites of amphibians for observation

by scanning electron microscopy .................................................126

3. What can SEM studies tell us about helminth parasites of

amphibians? ......................................................................................129

4. Helminth parasites of Argentinean amphibian studied with SEM:

Synthesis and new contributions-Research perspectives .........147

5. Importance of the use of scanning electron microscope for the

study of helminth parasites of amphibians ...............................150

6. Acknowledgments ...........................................................................150

Chapter 8 Effects of Climate Change in Amphibians and Reptiles..............158

1. Introduction........................................................................................158

2. Amphibians........................................................................................159

3. Reptiles................................................................................................168

4. General conclusions..........................................................................172

5. Acknowledgements...........................................................................173

Chapter 9 Anuran Amphibians: A Huge and Threatened Factory of a Variety of Active Peptides with Potential Nanobiotechnological Applications in the Face of Amphibian Decline............................187

1. Introduction........................................................................................187

2. Anuran amphibians: Origen, evolution and distribution.........188

3. Amphibian decline: The biodiversity crisis.................................192

4. Anuran skin protective adaptations..............................................197

5. Frog skin active peptides family:

Defence against pathogens and predators...................................199

6. The resistance crisis: Increasing need for new antimicrobials...205

7. Peptide antibiotics:

Nanotechnological approaches against superbugs.....................208

8. Final considerations .........................................................................211

9. Abbreviations.....................................................................................211

10. Acknowledgments.............................................................................212

Citation......................................................................................................229

Index...........................................................................................................231

About Author

Enrique Pereira holds M.Sc. Degree in Biology from Public Science University, Galicia. He is a Research Associate at Scientific Institute, Porto. He has written & contributed a number of research papers in eminent journals on central nervous system of vertebrates, phylogenetic relationships between animals, and reproductive systems. His keen interest research topics include vertebrate immunology and evolution of the vertebrate immune system. In his researches, he has discussed embryology, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, palaeontology, and ecology of all vertebrates.